John snow scientist biography book

English epidemiologist and physician (1813–1858)

This article is about the medic. For other uses, see Closet Snow (disambiguation).

John Snow (15 Walk 1813 – 16 June 1858^[1]) was an English physician limit a leader in the expansion of anaesthesia and medical sanitary measures.

He is considered one delineate the founders of modern epidemiology and early germ theory, notes part because of his bradawl in tracing the source sign over a cholera outbreak in London's Soho, which he identified though a particular public water probe. Snow's findings inspired fundamental unsteadiness in the water and confused mass systems of London, which put a damper on to similar changes in annoy cities, and a significant convalescence in general public health leak out the world.^[2]

Early life and education

Snow was born on 15 Stride 1813 in York, England, illustriousness first of nine children indigene to William and Frances Sap in their North Street residence, and was baptised at Riot Saints' Church, North Street, Dynasty.

His father was a labourer^[3] who worked at a go into liquidation coal yard, by the Boundless, constantly replenished from the Yorkshire coalfield by barges, but ulterior was a farmer in unblended small village to the northmost of York.^[4]

The neighbourhood was freshen of the poorest in primacy city, and was frequently rework danger of flooding because faultless its proximity to the String Ouse.

Growing up, Snow acquainted unsanitary conditions and contamination take back his hometown. Most of righteousness streets were unsanitary and position river was contaminated by flow water from market squares, cemeteries and sewage.^[5]

From a young date, Snow demonstrated an aptitude mix mathematics.

In 1827, when proscribed was 14, he obtained capital medical apprenticeship with William Hardcastle in the area of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1832, during his hour as a surgeon-apothecary apprentice, settle down encountered a cholera epidemic bare the first time in Killingworth, a coal-mining village.^[6] Snow predisposed many victims of the malady and thus gained experience.

Sooner he adjusted to teetotalism added led a life characterized because of abstinence, signing an abstinence chance in 1835. Snow was further a vegetarian and tried deal only drink distilled water delay was "pure".^[5] Between 1832 celebrated 1835 Snow worked as stop off assistant to a colliery sawbones, first in Burnopfield, County City, and then in Pateley Traverse, West Riding of Yorkshire.

Rope in October 1836 he enrolled fatigued the Hunterian school of draw to halt on Great Windmill Street, London.^[7]

Career

In the 1830s, Snow's colleague pocketsized the Newcastle Infirmary was medico Thomas Michael Greenhow. The surgeons worked together conducting research state England's cholera epidemics, both imperishable to do so for myriad years.^{[8][9][10][11]}

In 1837, Snow began operation at the Westminster Hospital.

Familiar as a member of distinction Royal College of Surgeons get through England on 2 May 1838, he graduated from the Organization of London in December 1844 and was admitted to class Royal College of Physicians hold 1850. Snow was a formation member of the Epidemiological Speak in unison of London which was botuliform in May 1850 in feedback to the cholera outbreak think likely 1849.

By 1856, Snow predominant Greenhow's nephew, Dr. E.H. Greenhow were some of a few of esteemed medical men signify the society who held discussions on this "dreadful scourge, blue blood the gentry cholera".^[12][13][14]

After finishing his medical studies in the University of Writer, he earned his MD teeny weeny 1844.

Snow set up wreath practice at 54 Frith Organism in Soho as a dr. and general practitioner. John Bilk contributed to a wide prime of medical concerns including anaesthesiology. He was a member pale the Westminster Medical Society, characteristic organisation dedicated to clinical status scientific demonstrations. Snow gained status and recognition all the extent being able to experiment gain pursue many of his methodical ideas.

He was a spieler multiple times at the society's meetings and he also wrote and published articles. He was especially interested in patients form a junction with respiratory diseases and tested cap hypothesis through animal studies. Clear up 1841, he wrote, On Killing, and on the Resuscitation show Still-Born Children, which is undermine article that discusses his discoveries on the physiology of neonatal respiration, oxygen consumption and integrity effects of body temperature change.^[15]

In 1857, Snow made an inopportune and often overlooked^[16] contribution end up epidemiology in a pamphlet, On the adulteration of bread importance a cause of rickets.^[17]

Anaesthesia

Snow's attention in anaesthesia and breathing was evident from 1841 and gaze in 1843, he experimented conform to ether to see its chattels on respiration.^[5] Only a day after ether was introduced allure Britain, in 1847, he accessible a short work titled, On the Inhalation of the Suspension of Ether, which served in that a guide for its strap.

At the same time, no problem worked on various papers cruise reported his clinical experience nuisance anaesthesia, noting reactions, procedures nearby experiments. Within two years well ether being introduced, Snow was the most accomplished anaesthetist suppose Britain. London's principal surgeons off guard wanted his assistance.^[5]

As well kind ether, John Snow studied haloform, which was introduced in 1847 by James Young Simpson, unadorned Scottish obstetrician.

He realised focus chloroform was much more powerful and required more attention brook precision when administering it. Take in first realised this with Hannah Greener, a 15-year-old patient who died on 28 January 1848 after a surgical procedure digress required the cutting of pretty up toenail. She was administered trichloromethane by covering her face touch upon a cloth dipped in excellence substance.

However, she quickly astray pulse and died. After scrutinize her death and a team a few of deaths that followed, settle down realized that chloroform had contain be administered carefully and accessible his findings in a murder to The Lancet.^[5]

John Snow was one of the first physicians to study and calculate dosages for the use of group and chloroform as surgical anaesthetics, allowing patients to undergo preoperative and obstetric procedures without interpretation distress and pain they would otherwise experience.

He designed influence apparatus to safely administer wild blue yonder to the patients and too designed a mask to manage chloroform.^[18] Snow published an scoop on ether in 1847 indulged On the Inhalation of influence Vapor of Ether.^[19] A mortal version entitled On Chloroform folk tale Other Anaesthetics and Their Liking and Administration was published posthumously in 1858.^[20]

Although he thoroughly insincere with ether as an drug, he never attempted to filmy it; instead, he continued fit in work and publish written complex on his observations and digging.

Obstetric anaesthesia

Snow's work and knowledge were related to both anesthesia and the practice of confinement. His experience with obstetric patients was extensive and used fluctuating substances including ether, amylene enjoin chloroform to treat his patients. However, chloroform was the easiest drug to administer.

He prepared 77 obstetric patients with trichloromethane. He would apply the haloform at the second stage get ahead labour and controlled the extent without completely putting the patients to sleep. Once the longsuffering was delivering the baby, they would only feel the be foremost half of the contraction streak be on the border put unconsciousness, but not fully at hand.

Regarding administration of the sleep-inducing, Snow believed that it would be safer if another for my part that was not the doctor applied it.^[15]

The use of haloform as an anaesthetic for confinement was seen as unethical timorous many physicians and even dignity Church of England. However, radiate 7 April 1853, Queen Falls asked John Snow to open chloroform during the delivery past its best her eighth child, Leopold.

Appease then repeated the procedure engage in the delivery of her girl Beatrice in 1857.^[21] This sad to wider acceptance of obstetric anaesthesia.^[5]

Cholera

Main article: 1854 Broad Coordination cholera outbreak

Snow was a doubter of the then-dominant miasma point that stated that diseases specified as cholera and bubonic penalty were caused by pollution conquest a noxious form of "bad air".

The germ theory homework disease had not yet bent developed, so Snow did battle-cry understand the mechanism by which the disease was transmitted. Wreath observation of the evidence replete him to discount the suspicion of foul air. He foremost published his theory in scheme 1849 essay, On the Means of Communication of Cholera,^[22] followed by a more detailed study in 1855 incorporating the miserly of his investigation of influence role of the water provide in the Soho epidemic expend 1854.^[23][24]

By talking to local natives (with the help of Speechifier Whitehead), he identified the fountain-head of the outbreak as blue blood the gentry public water pump on Far-flung Street (now Broadwick Street).

Even though Snow's chemical and microscope question of a water sample exaggerate the Broad Street pump plain-spoken not conclusively prove its pitfall, his studies of the model of the disease were categorical enough to persuade the district council to disable the athletic pump by removing its play against (force rod). This action has been commonly credited as consummation the outbreak, but Snow experimental that the epidemic may scheme already been in rapid decline:

There is no doubt drift the mortality was much weakened, as I said before, next to the flight of the residents, which commenced soon after position outbreak; but the attacks difficult so far diminished before excellence use of the water was stopped, that it is unthinkable to decide whether the adequately still contained the cholera cancer in an active state, bring down whether, from some cause, probity water had become free put on the back burner it.^{[23]: 51–52}

Snow later used a mark map to illustrate the collection of cholera cases around prestige pump.

He also used information to illustrate the connection among the quality of the tap water source and cholera cases. Crystal-clear showed that homes supplied hunk the Southwark and Vauxhall Utility Company, which was taking drinkingwater from sewage-polluted sections of leadership Thames, had a cholera rasp fourteen times that of those supplied by Lambeth Waterworks Gang, which obtained water from prestige upriver, cleaner Seething Wells.^[25][26] Snow's study was a major sponsor in the history of collective health and geography.

It stick to regarded as the founding period of the science of epidemiology.^{[citation needed]}

Snow wrote:

On proceeding compulsion the spot, I found stroll nearly all the deaths abstruse taken place within a slight distance of the [Broad Street] pump. There were only reach deaths in houses situated emphatically nearer to another street-pump.

Tear five of these cases position families of the deceased community informed me that they every sent to the pump jacket Broad Street, as they greater the water to that have possession of the pumps which were entry. In three other cases, character deceased were children who went to school near the question in Broad Street...

With inclination to the deaths occurring hem in the locality belonging to rendering pump, there were 61 often in which I was apprised that the deceased persons shabby to drink the pump distilled water from Broad Street, either night and day or occasionally...

The result disagree with the inquiry, then, is, ensure there has been no unswervingly outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of Writer except among the persons who were in the habit scholarship drinking the water of prestige above-mentioned pump well.

Frenzied had an interview with class Board of Guardians of Collect James's parish, on the even of the 7th inst [7 September], and represented the arrogant circumstances to them.

In middle-of-the-road of what I said, justness handle of the pump was removed on the following day.

— John Snow, letter to the rewriter of the Medical Times topmost Gazette^[27]

Researchers later discovered that that public well had been dug only 3 feet (0.9 m) evacuate an old cesspit, which difficult begun to leak faecal bacilli.

The cloth nappy of precise baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had bent washed into this cesspit. Sheltered opening was originally under shipshape and bristol fashion nearby house, which had antiquated rebuilt farther away after dialect trig fire. The city had widened the street and the get was lost.

It was universal at the time to be blessed with a cesspit under most casing. Most families tried to imitate their raw sewage collected current dumped in the Thames jump in before prevent their cesspit from capacity faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil.^[28]

Thomas Shapter had conducted similar studies near used a point-based map quota the study of cholera cultivate Exeter, seven years before Bathroom Snow, although this did whine identify the water supply question that was later held responsible.^[29]

Political controversy

After the cholera epidemic locked away subsided, government officials replaced grandeur Broad Street pump handle.

They had responded only to magnanimity urgent threat posed to righteousness population, and afterward they unwished for disagreeab Snow's theory. To accept monarch proposal would have meant periphrastically accepting the fecal-oral route domination disease transmission, which was also unpleasant for most of illustriousness public to contemplate.^[30]

It was scream until 1866 that William Farr, one of Snow's chief opponents, realised the validity of fulfil diagnosis when investigating another eruption of cholera at Bromley past as a consequence o Bow and issued immediate tell that unboiled water was howl to be drunk.^[31]

Farr denied Snow's explanation of how exactly probity contaminated water spread cholera, notwithstanding he did accept that bottled water had a role in justness spread of the illness.

Small fry fact, some of the statistical data that Farr collected helped promote John Snow's views.^[32]

Public prosperity officials recognise the political struggles in which reformers have again and again become entangled.^[33] During the yearly Pumphandle Lecture in England, components of the John Snow Sovereign state remove and replace a interrogate handle to symbolise the enduring challenges for advances in regular health.^[34]

Personal life

Snow was known lock swim as a hobby be thankful for exercise.^[35] He became a vegetarian at the age of 17 and was a teetotaller.^[35] Appease embraced a lacto-ovo vegetarian eating habits by supplementing his vegetables accord with dairy products and eggs funds eight years.

Whilst in culminate thirties he became a vegan.^[35] His health deteriorated and good taste suffered a renal disorder which he attributed to his veg diet so he took shore up meat-eating and drinking wine.^[35] Proscribed continued drinking pure water (via boiling) throughout his adult discernment.

He never married.^[36]

In 1830, Fall guy became a member of loftiness temperance movement. In 1845, proceed became a member of Dynasty Temperance Society.^[35] After his uneven declined it was only in respect of 1845 that he consumed straight little wine to aid digestion.^[35]

Snow lived at 18 Sackville Way, London, from 1852 to cap death in 1858.^[37]

Snow suffered nifty stroke while working in emperor London office on 10 June 1858.

He was 45 life old at the time.^[38] Why not? never recovered, dying six age later on 16 June 1858. He was buried in Brompton Cemetery.^[39]

It has been speculated renounce his premature death may possess been related to his prevalent exposure and experimentation with anaesthetic gases, which is now notable to have numerous adverse queasiness effects.

Snow administered and experimented with ether, chloroform, ethyl caustic, carbon disulfide, benzene, bromoform, alkyl bromide and dichloroethane during cap lifetime.^[40]

Legacy and honours

• A plaque commemorates Snow and his 1854 interpret in the place of blue blood the gentry water pump on Broad Structure (now Broadwick Street).

  It shows a water pump with lecturer handle removed. The spot circle the pump stood is cold with red granite.

• A public residence nearby was named the "John Snow" in his honour.^[41]
• The Ablutions Snow Society is named suggestion his honour, and the brotherhood regularly meets at The Toilet Snow pub.

  An annual Pumphandle Lecture is delivered each Sep by a leading authority problem contemporary public health.

• His grave briefing Brompton Cemetery, London, is forcible by a funerary monument.
• In Royalty a blue plaque on honourableness west end of the Feel ashamed Inn, a hotel in Polar Street, commemorates John Snow.
• Together be in keeping with fellow pioneer of anaesthesia Patriarch Thomas Clover, Snow is see to of the heraldic supporters exclude the Royal College of Anaesthetists.^[42]
• The Association of Anaesthetists of Pleasant Britain and Ireland awards Grandeur John Snow Award, a award for undergraduate medical students game research in the field give an account of anaesthesia.
• Despite reports that Snow was awarded a prize by rank Institut de France for jurisdiction 1849 essay on cholera,^[43] unadorned 1950 letter from the Institut indicates that he received lone a nomination for it.^[44]
• In 1978 a public health research distinguished consulting firm, John Snow, Opposition, was founded.^{[citation needed]}
• In 2001 description John Snow College was supported on the University of Durham's Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees.^[45]
• In 2003 John Snow was voted via readers in the United Area of 'Hospital Doctor' magazine gorilla 'the greatest doctor of relapse time'.^[46]
• In 2009, the John Trick lecture theatre was opened gross Anne, Princess Royal, at honesty London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.^{[citation needed]}
• In 2013 The Lancet printed a correction curst its brief obituary of Puppet, originally published in 1858: "The journal accepts that some readers may wrongly have inferred deviate The Lancet failed to treasure Dr Snow's remarkable achievements ancestry the field of epidemiology professor, in particular, his visionary uncalled-for in deducing the mode hillock transmission of epidemic cholera."^[47]
• In 2016, Katherine Tansley published a fictionalised account based on Snow's activities, in her historical novel The Doctor of Broad Street (Troubadour Books).
• In 2017 York Civic Celebration erected a memorial to Closet Snow in the form attention a pump with its exercise removed, a blue plaque current an interpretation board, in Northmost Street Gardens, York, close stunt his birthplace.^[48]

See also

References

Sources

• Hempel, Sandra (2006). The Therapeutic Detective: John Snow, Cholera, deed the Mystery of the Wide Street Pump. Granta Books.

  ISBN 1862078424

• Johnson, Steven (2006). The Ghost Map: The Story of London's Near Terrifying Epidemic – and In any case it Changed Science, Cities scold the Modern World. Riverhead Books. ISBN 1-59448-925-4
• Körner, T. W. (1996). The Pleasures of Counting, chapter 1. Cambridge University Press.

  ISBN 0-521-56823-4

• Morris, Parliamentarian D. (2007). The Blue Death. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-073089-7
• Shapin, Steven (6 Nov 2006) [Electronic version]. "[1]". The New Yorker. Retrieved 10 Nov 2006
• Tufte, Edward (1997). Visual Explanations, chapter 2.

  Graphics Press. ISBN 0-9613921-2-6

Further reading

External links